China Exhibits At World Expositions And Smuggled Women, 1893-1895.

As the 19th century came to an end,  many nations participated in three cultural expositions in Chicago (1893), San Francisco (1894), and Atlanta (1895) with exhibits of cultural artifacts and performances of their music and dances. Nations needed temporary immigration certificates for laborers and performers to enter the U.S. This requirement was especially important for Chinese because of the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act. There was concern that once the Chinese crossed our borders, some would fail to return to China after their certificates expired or that some Chinese women would stay and work as prostitutes who were in high demand because of the great discrepancy in the number of Chinese males and females in the U.S. 

 

Life for ABC's Moving to China, 1901-1949

The study of Chinese in America has concentrated on how Chinese immigrants, and their descendants, were treated by mainstream American society and how they fought to overcome the social and legal barriers they faced for decades. Somewhat overlooked has been the lives of American born Chinese (ABCs) who emigrated to China in the first half of the 20th Century. Accurate data on how many ABCs were involved is not easy to determine, but one estimate is that as many as half of ABCs moved to China for varying lengths of residence there. In some cases, immigrant parents sent young children to China to live with relatives so they could learn the Chinese language and customs. Some adolescent and young adult Chinese felt they would have better futures in China than if they remained in the U.S. with its Chinese Exclusion Law, anti-Chinese prejudices, and numerous discriminatory laws that limited their opportunities. During the first half of the 20th century, even ABCs with college degrees from prestigious universities faced discrimination in the job market. Altruistic motives such as the belief that their knowledge and skills could help modernize China were also a factor for some ABCs. However, their Chinese language skills were a limitation and they also faced suspicion from Chinese authorities.

Historian Charlotte Brooks has done extensive research with archival material and interviews in an important 2019 book, American Exodus to examine why so many American born Chinese moved to China and what their lives were like there. Were they accepted in China or did they face discrimination from Chinese? How many decided to return to the U.S. eventually, and why? After World War II ended and the rise of Communist China, many returned to the U.S. and there were few, if any, new ABCs coming to replace them.

Jee Gam, First Chinese Ordained Minister in the U.S., 1885

Jee Gam emigrated from China at age 14 and became a cook in the home of George Mooar, a Congregationalist minister. He converted to Christianity, joined the First Congregationalist Church in Oakland in 1870 and often worked as a court interpreter. The religious activism of Jee Gam and other Chinese Protestants helped advocate for Chinese American suffrage and oppose Chinese exclusion, an involvement that has received little recognition from historians. They faced obstacles as many Americans viewed the Chinese as heathens and questioned whether they would accept Christianity.

 After 25 years of service at a Congregational church, in 1885 Jee Gam became the first Chinese American ordained as a Congregationalist minister, even though he could not become a U.S. citizen.

Joy Gam delivered a speech in 1891 at the Chinese Mission in Santa Cruz, describing a visit he made to his village in China. They were interested in hearing about the American railroads,  machinery, and other wonderful inventions and asked him why Americans were so wise. Jee Gam saw this as an opening to preach to them, explaining that praying to God made their success possible.